Fashion in the Fourteenth Century
Fashion Prior to 1300:
One common refrain is that fashion between 1000 and 1300 is largely static and unchanging. While this is true in a generic sense, it is not literally the case. So, while this piece will address the changes of the fourteenth century and particularly focus on the middle period of that century, it would be inappropriate to neglect what came before 1300. For now, I will note that while fashion changed and developed between 1000 and 1300, the basic sartorial ethos and practice of garment construction remained fairly stable. 1000-1300 was a period typified by long, loose, boxy cuts involving undergarments of linen, tunics of wool, and a super tunic or surcote of fine wool and usually lined with fur or wool. Of course, there were variations on these garments, but these broad descriptions are generally true for this 300-year period.
With this very brief reference to 1000-1300, we can see how the new fashion of the fourteenth century was so starkly different. The cuts of many of the garments changed and began to follow the contours of the body. While tight fitting garments came in and out of vogue in earlier periods, they were still boxy in their overall cuts. The new fashion embraced tailored, tighter fitting clothes as a rule. In addition, buttons and lacings became necessary for donning and doffing the tighter fitting cuts. However, rather than limiting the buttons to the bare minimum, the period began with the extravagant use of buttons on the garment as a way of demonstrating quality, status, and excess. Further, the overall presentation of dress was more ostentatious through the use of color, conspicuous waste of fabric for ornamentation, and the use of silk on a grand scale.
To describe medieval fashion prior to 1300 is to engage in both/and doublespeak. It was both stable and subject to changes. It was both monolithic and individual it was both simple and ornate. The reason for a common assumption that true “fashion” did not begin until the mid-fourteenth century arises from scholarship that heavily emphasizes the visual medium of clothing rather than taking a more holistic approach to how society at the time itself viewed sartorial choices. Over reliance on any one type of source for assessing medieval fashion will result in incorrect assumptions and gaps in information. It is understandable to view dress from 1000-1300 on a purely visual level and assume that clothing was rather basic, standard, and unchanging. However, the flaw in this is that fashion is not merely an amalgamation of visual clothing features such as sleeve length, necklines, and shoe style. Instead, fashion is a more complex set of ideas, aspirations, and expression within a social group.
One common refrain is that fashion between 1000 and 1300 is largely static and unchanging. While this is true in a generic sense, it is not literally the case. So, while this piece will address the changes of the fourteenth century and particularly focus on the middle period of that century, it would be inappropriate to neglect what came before 1300. For now, I will note that while fashion changed and developed between 1000 and 1300, the basic sartorial ethos and practice of garment construction remained fairly stable. 1000-1300 was a period typified by long, loose, boxy cuts involving undergarments of linen, tunics of wool, and a super tunic or surcote of fine wool and usually lined with fur or wool. Of course, there were variations on these garments, but these broad descriptions are generally true for this 300-year period.
With this very brief reference to 1000-1300, we can see how the new fashion of the fourteenth century was so starkly different. The cuts of many of the garments changed and began to follow the contours of the body. While tight fitting garments came in and out of vogue in earlier periods, they were still boxy in their overall cuts. The new fashion embraced tailored, tighter fitting clothes as a rule. In addition, buttons and lacings became necessary for donning and doffing the tighter fitting cuts. However, rather than limiting the buttons to the bare minimum, the period began with the extravagant use of buttons on the garment as a way of demonstrating quality, status, and excess. Further, the overall presentation of dress was more ostentatious through the use of color, conspicuous waste of fabric for ornamentation, and the use of silk on a grand scale.
To describe medieval fashion prior to 1300 is to engage in both/and doublespeak. It was both stable and subject to changes. It was both monolithic and individual it was both simple and ornate. The reason for a common assumption that true “fashion” did not begin until the mid-fourteenth century arises from scholarship that heavily emphasizes the visual medium of clothing rather than taking a more holistic approach to how society at the time itself viewed sartorial choices. Over reliance on any one type of source for assessing medieval fashion will result in incorrect assumptions and gaps in information. It is understandable to view dress from 1000-1300 on a purely visual level and assume that clothing was rather basic, standard, and unchanging. However, the flaw in this is that fashion is not merely an amalgamation of visual clothing features such as sleeve length, necklines, and shoe style. Instead, fashion is a more complex set of ideas, aspirations, and expression within a social group.
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Fashion From 1340-1365:
What is remarkable is that the new fashion appeared across Europe nearly simultaneously. [1] Indeed, this new fashion caused such uproar that chroniclers noted its adoption across Europe alongside seemingly grander happenings such as various battles of the 100 Years war. 1340 truly marked a new epoch in fashion which contemporaries viewed less as “mutation of the fashion which had previously been worn…, but something quite new.” [2] So great was the distress over the new fashion that various nations ascribed the new fashion to their neighbors. The Italians blamed the Spaniards, the English blamed the Flemish, and the French, while exorcised by the new fashion, apparently did not blame anyone else.
If then, there was a drastic change to something, what did the fashion change from? Prior to 1340, fashion was characterized by being cut loose and boxy. Sleeves were cut square and attached in a T-shape to the torso. The torso was worn wide across the chest and flared out more dramatically around the skirt. Garments were simply pulled over the head and controlled at the natural waist with a belt. Although progress toward neater cuts and closer tailoring had been made, it was the rule that clothing was not well tailored to the body. In the Twelfth century clothing was worn with loose long sleeves. In the Thirteenth century, armholes become tight in an attempt to gain better fit but the underlying problem of boxy t-shaped cuts still hampered better fits. [3]
In the Feudal Customs of Aragon from 1290-1310, the Vidale de Canellas offering his text to King James I of Argon shows the progression of better fitting sleeves. The wearers appear to have laced sleeves which would require lacing every day when the garment was put on. [4] Although this addressed the loose fitting sleeves at the forearm, artwork still depicts large folds and wrinkles of fabric in the underarm which suggest that the sleeves are still roughly t-shaped and loose fitting.
All of this changed in the 1340s. Sleeves were now “set in” the torso into rounded armholes high up the arm into the shoulder joint. The sleeves were worn close fitting and the torso of the tunic followed the contours of the body. Buttons adorned sleeves and the earlier method of manually sewing close fitting sleeves closed everyday was discarded. Men’s skirts, rather than flaring with ample folds of fabric, began to be much more form fitting, especially for the men. Because these garments were much closer fitting, they could no longer be pulled over the body and controlled with a belt. Instead, the garments required fastening through buttons and lacing. Even more scandalous was that this style of dress might necessitate assistance from another in donning and doffing the garments. [5]
Because these garments were shaped to fit an individual, the tailor was more involved. Further, rather than using a rectangular piece of fabric to make an arm or torso piece, the fabric was contoured which resulted in much more fabric waste from small cuttings of curved portions of the body. Indeed, the cotehardie’s tippets – the long hanging sleeve – furthered this “waste” of fabric by adorning a garment with completely ornamental sleeves. [6]
However, do not assume that these changes occurred in a vacuum. That they occurred over night, all at once, or universally. They did indeed coalesce in the 1340s, but changes – although stark – did come from somewhere and did reflect changes in society and evolutions of fashion.
In general, the fashion of the period involved the following garments:
Braies –
These are the undergarments of the time. Made of linen, they could be lined but were not typically. The reason one might line the braies would have to do with how short the doublet was and whether another outer garment like a cotehardies was worn over it. The braies become shorter and less baggy in this period as the hose rise and cover more of the upper thigh. By the mid-14th century they are essentially linen shorts cinched to the body with a drawstring. Although there remains great debate about whether women wore undergarments, the better part of the evidence appears that they did not. On this account, one notes that during the trial of Joan of Arc she was accused of wearing men’s clothes including hose and braies. It stands to reason she would not be thus charged if women typically wore braies. Still, this is an oft debated issue with valid points on both sides and there is evidence of early linen bras as well as menstruation garments.
Hose –
Hose in the mid-14th century began to change in cut and became longer and extended more fully to cover the back of the upper thigh to the buttock. The hose rose to meet up with the doublet and pointed to the doublet in fashionable styles by the 1340s. The hose would have sets of eyelets that allowed pointing around the top edge of the hose and could be pointed in the front, back, and sides of the hose. Sometimes there would be two courses on the front, side, and back each. It was not uncommon for men to untie certain points when engaged in vigorous activity because the hose would pull on the doublet and make bending and other movements difficult if the hose were attached all around the leg. However, when attached, it would give a very smooth effect. In addition, the hose attaching to the doublet would not only keep the hose up, but would help keep the doublet down. This was important as the doublet was often used as a foundational garment to give the wearer the stylish outline of the day.
Joined hose begin to be fashionable by the end of the 14th century but are certainly not universal.
For women, the hose did not change in form in the 14th century. They continued to be worn to the upper calf and kept in place with a garter of leather, ribbon, or cord.
Linen under shirt/smock –
This is a ubiquitous garment that would typically be changed every day if possible. It was easily laundered and was worn even with other foundation garments like a doublet. While the garment was probably worn looser in earlier periods, it would have to be somewhat tailored by the mid-1300s to fit underneath the more form fitting outer garments. This is particularly true of the sleeves which are often depicted as only reaching the forearm rather than the wrist. This would make sense as the sleeves of garments becomes considerably tighter in the mid-1300s.
For women, the smock serves the same basic function but is a knee to calf length garment which flares at the waist or the hips through the addition of gores in the garment to form a modest and comfortable skirt.
Cote/Tunic/Jupon/gippon -
The cote continued to be worn through the period but become closer fitting to match the styles of the day. The Jupon is worn as a cote – that is to say, it is worn as the base layer of clothing over the body linens. It would be long sleeved and have buttons down the sleeves. It was typically button down the front either all the way down or to the waist.
This could be worn with or without a doublet. It could also be worn with or without a cotehardie or surcote over it. It was a basic garment worn long sleeved. In this period, the sleeves usually buttoned up to the wrist and would feature 6 or more buttons along the sleeves. The skirts were knee length and had some freedom in the early 1340s. By the 1360s, the skirts were close fitting and reached to the mid-thigh. The torso became much closer fitting in the 1340s and followed the contours of the body rather naturally. By the 1350s the torso featured a padded belly with a curved back and by the 1360s, the fashion often featured a narrow waist with a padded rounded chest. Belts were often worn low around the hips with pouches and daggers worn between the legs.
For women the cote or dress did become closer fitting around the torso and the waist line dropped from the natural waist to the top of the hips or below. Women, too, wore belts low with pouches and sometimes even daggers in between the legs in what society viewed as a scandalously masculine fashion. The sleeves were buttoned and cut similarly to men’s clothing.
Doublet/paltok/jack (jacquerie)/corset –
This class of garment have their origins in martial or sporting wear and often worn in distinction to the cote but still worn with an over-tunic such as a coteharidie. The doublet is always lined, hence the name which is an allusion to its double layers. Typically it is laced in the front through eyelets. This is because it is being worn under other garments. Therefore, buttons on the front would alter the lines of the outer garment. The eyelets are generally placed 2-3 cm apart.
In the 1340s, the doublet appears to be worn to the crotch but by the 1360s it has risen to the hips. The doublet is also often worn as a foundational garment and may not have always been visible. When worn as a visible garment it will typically have buttons up the sleeves at least to the elbow. When worn foundationally, it probably lacked sleeves because it would be worn with a sleeved jupon or cotehardie or surcote. When worn as a foundational garment, it could be padded in the belly or the chest depending on the fashion of the time. In any case, by about 1340, hose were beginning to be worn higher and therefore would point to the doublet and the bottom would also contain courses of eyelets for points to attached hose. Anywhere from four to ten courses of eyelets were common. The more eyelets the finer the garment. By a “course” it is meant paired holes for a single tie to loop into with the untied ends hanging down and free to slip through the matching points on the hose. The doublet would typically lace up the front but could also be buttoned. In any case, the closures typically extended down the entire front of the garment. There are some references side lacing doublets, but these seem to be uncommon.
The Paltok came into popularity late in the 1360s or the 1370s. It was essentially a doublet with padding throughout and with quilted stitches. The pourpoint of Charles de Blois is the quintessential example of the padded paltok. It was martial in appearance but worn as the high fashion of day. Usually, this garment will be made of fine patterned or brocaded silk and lined with linen. Another term often used interchangeably with the paltok or pourpoint is the arming doublet.
The jacquerie was a French garment of humble rather than noble or genteel origins. It was popularized in France after the peasant revolt of 1358 and the defeat at Poiters. Called the jack in England, this was certainly a French import to England. The jack appears similar to the pourpoint in that its origins are martial in nature and that it was often quieted and padded for defense. However, the Jack was an outer garment worn over the cote. It was a very thick, many layered sleeveless garment that was intended to provided padding and protection to otherwise unarmored men. Among the lower classes, the jack was a garment of necessity and meant to be a simple, minimal padding. However, it was adopted and worn fashionably by the upper classes. The fact that the pourpoint and the jack are worn in fashionable circles highlights the martial focus of the century and the desire to appear ready for combat at all times.
For women, and indeed men, there are the beginnings of references to corsets as foundation garments. However, it is not likely that these were the ridged boned garments of later eras. Instead, it is my belief that the corset was cut like a sleeveless padded doublet. The garment could be worn as a foundation garment to give an appropriate silhouette to a outfit. Although the garment is often mentioned in wardrobes, there is a dearth in artwork that would reveal exactly what is meant by a corset.
Cotehardie/surcote –
The cotehardie is simply a description of a type of outer-cote. It literally means “bold coat” and therefore was typically an outer garment of finer cloth than the cote and was worn in the place of a surcote. The purpose of the outermost garment in this period of medieval fashion was to be expressive and feature bold cuts, colors, and stylings. It is not, then, a single definable style of garment but rather changes with time over the 14th and 15th centuries. [7] In the same way, the surcote merely connotes a garment that was worn over top the cote. The styles and cuts change over the 14th century but the authors tend to call the garment the same things. Their descriptions inform us of how it was worn – over a cote – but does not tell us what the cuts or styles were. Indeed, authors often use cotehardie, surcote, and supertunic interchangeably and regionally in a way that makes clear distinction difficult.
Still, when worn over a tunic, the cotehardie will typically be either sleeveless or have short sleeves. During the 1340s, tippits (pendants/streamers hanging from the short sleeves) were fashionable. In the 1340s it is most common for a cotehardie to button down the front across the chest. However, as the fashion developed, it became more common, but not universal, for the buttons to extend down the entire front of the garment. This was in part due to the tighter fits and higher hems which came in vogue. These changes made it impossible to pull even the skirts over the head and therefore the cotehardie needed to be button closed. In addition, the garment was frequently dagged at the hem and often done to match the hood in design. The cotehardie can be worn over a doublet or a tunic and might reach to the knees or, by the 1360s, might reach to only the mid-thigh. On the other hand, to the extent that such fine distinctions can be made, the surcote would typically be long tunic that reached to the mid-calf or the ground. It was not unfashionable to wear such a garment even as other skirts had rising hemlines. Instead, the longer garments tend to be signs of maturity, authority, and distinction in occupation.
Women adopted the basic stylings of the cotehardie, including the sleeve tippits, buttons, and close fit around the torso. However, because all women’s skirts reached at least to the ground, they did not adopt the higher hems. For the same reason, dagging at the bottom of the cotehardie skirt was not seen among women.
Gown/goune/houpplande –
The gown became quite popular in this period and was often made of wool or silk. A fine gown might use silk brocade and be richly decorated. In contrast to the other styles of the period which were close fitting and neat, the gown was lavish in its spaciousness and cut. The sleeves were often full length but might have holes in the mid-arm to allow the wearer to slide the arm out. This was typically a necessity to function as the sleeves were extremely wide and billowing. The length of the gown could be floor length, mid-thigh length or anywhere in between for men. For women the gown was universally floor length. The skirts of the gown were frounced and ruffled with extremely voluminous skirts and multiple ruffles to give the most billowy effect possible.
Headwear/Hood –
The hood reached its full potential in the 14th century and during the mid-14th century it became ever more outrageous, decorated, and subject to the whimsies of fleeting fashion. While the hood of the 13th century was largely a garment of utility and essential function, the hood of the 14th century was so much more. It was taken to the limits of fashionable wear. First, the liripipe, which in prior centuries began as a simple nub at the top of the hood, became longer and longer. By the 1340s the Lutrell Psalter shows that it extended from the top of the head in a long, thin strip of fabric to the shoulders. Other trendier fashions show the liripipe reaching to the small of the back, or sometimes even to the ground. The liripipes also become thinner as they grow longer. In addition, the bottom of the hood was frequently dagged in natural motifs or in repeating patterns. The liripipe, too, might be dagged or cut and then worn wrapped around the neck or tied around the cowl portion to the head. Another development was that the hood become tighter fitting around the neck and would often be buttoned rather than pulled over the head. The length of the hood cowl varied and could be wide and long – hanging over the shoulders and reaching the chest – or it could be relatively short and trim.
The classic bycocket, "Robin Hood" style hat became popular in the 14th century as well. It was made from wool felt which was shaped to have a tall crown with folded brim that comes to a point in the front. Although the "Robin Hood" style bycocket was very popular, other variations and shapes were common. The hat often had a lining of a contrasting color and was decorated with embroidery, feathers, and streamers of fabric. This style of hat was worn by both men and women.
Other styles of hats popular in the fourteenth century were turbans inspired by the Levant. Also popular was the fez style called a Turkish cap at the time. Men and women alike wore straw hats and wide brimmed felted wool hats. Other styles included tall, pointed hats that the wearer could roll up to wear as a close fitting cap or the wearer could leave the hat unrolled and let the extra portion to flop over across the head. Squared or rounded short caps are also part of the typical dress of both doctors and lawyers.
Women wore the most ostentatious hats of the period with steeple hats, horned shaped hats and other eye catching designs popular. Women also wore veils attached to many of their hats or to accompany the wimple head coverings. The veil was usually made of linen or silk and tended to be made of fine material. Veils are almost always white. They did not typically cover the face but instead frame or surround the face. Some veils are round with a hole left for the face and others were draped around the chin. The purpose of the veil in this period was to cover the hair, not the face.
While discussing women’s head covering, it is also appropriate to note that head covering and hairstyle would indicate the marital status of a medieval woman. In artwork, a young woman’s hair is typically left uncovered. If, for some reason it was covered it designated a physical or moral weakness [8] Women’s ears are hidden by either hair or head covering.
General observations:
In general, but not always, period authors often call an entire suit of clothes a roba or robe. This does not mean they are referring to a specific garment that we would now call the robe. Instead, the robe is comprised of the complete outfit of the wearer.
What makes understanding what is different about the new fashion especially confusing is that the people writing about them are not using specific terms, but often are writing using older, more general terms. Thus, an author will refer to what we now call a cotehardie by a more general term such as surcote or over-tunic or cote. In truth, that is what a cotehardie is, but the terms fail to capture the distinctives of a cotehardies as contrasted with a traditional surcote. Another difficulty is that the writers discussing the early changes in fashion are negatively and derisively describing the new garments. They are also typically writing about the garments in a way that is resistant to change and they do not, therefore, have sufficient motivation to differentiate the garments accurately at all times. I think of it like I would think of the difference between gaming consoles. You as a child knew all of the consoles and their minute distinctions while your mom used the general term – Nintendo – no matter what console it was. This is what seems to happen with these garments many times. Indeed, some of the garments do have considerable overlap in their use, function, and style. Further confusing things is that the braies and under linen shirt are usually a given, and thus not often commented upon. A final difficulty is that the authors are writing from different parts of Europe where the garments have different regional names. Italy, France, England, Germany, and other regions do not always call the same garment the same thing and this further complicates matters. Despite this, some authors do attempt to name the garments they are describing.
Fashion for men and women was similar prior to and throughout the 14th century save for three respects: (1) head covering and hairstyles; (2) the shape of the neckline; and (3) the length of the skirts. Although men’s fashion continues to be similar in basic form and function to women as the new fashion emerged, what is particularly new in the 1340s is that men’s fashion becomes shorter. Thus, this change is not as apparent for women’s dress in the mid-14th century. However, both men and women’s clothing becomes tighter fitting, starts to use buttons and lacing, becomes more ostentatious, and alters the neck line.
The biggest change for women in fourteenth century fashion is in headwear. While women’s garments did indeed change, the universal full length nature of women’s skirts left less opportunity for change. Instead, headwear presented the best opportunity for women to express the same social cues that changes in men’s fashion provided. Namely, headwear allowed women to be richly adorned, demonstrate gratuitous use of fabric and to call attention to oneself.
Women of high social status wore fantastic and intricate design. Some hats were intended to represent nature or animals with peacock or ostrich feathers being popular. [9] Another popular feature in women’s headwear were horn like protrusions. [10] Architecture also inspired women’s hats in the fourteenth century with gothic style steeple hats. [11] Women also wore hats with extremely long veils and with lavish decorations, embroidery, fur, beads, pearls, bells, feathers, and ribbons, ties and chin bands. [12] Typically, women’s hats did not match their primary dress.
In the early 1300s, the skirt of the tunic began to flare out at the naval and followed a rectangular outline of the upper body. While still rectangular, the outline had become much closer fitting than the previous fashions. As the fashion progressed, this rectangular outline began to more closely follow the contours of the body and absolutely required lacing or buttons to don and doff the clothing. However, the buttons and their arrangement were just as much a part of the fashion as the new style of cuts. In addition, the “waist” or the narrowest part of the garment was lowered below the natural waist toward the hips and ultimately the crotch.[13]
The cotehardie sleeves began to be shorter and only came half way down the upper arm and as the sleeve became shorter, the tippets became longer and narrower. Eventually, they would simply become streamers of fabric which could be removed, but in the early period, they were rounder and a clear extension of the sleeve.[14] Another quintessential development was the using of dagging which involving cutting the edges of the garments, and especially capes, hoods, and cowls, into fanciful patterns and shapes. Although this was not strictly a 14th century development, it was one that was fully embraced and realized in this period with some of the most elaborate examples from the 14th century. [15] Dagging was also frequently used on the bottom of the cotehardie or gown and often on the sleeves.
Sleeves in general were more elaborate and often had embroidered designs and trim. The embroidered designs might be heraldic motifs, floral or natural motifs, or repeating geometric patterns. [16] Cote sleeves frequently are trimmed in fur such as ermine for the wealthy while a lower status garment might only be trimmed with sheepskin.[17]
Late Fourteenth Century:
By 1380, the fashions of the mid-14th century were evolving yet again and advancing beyond the trends that started the new fashion. While less of a revolution than the new fashion of the 1340s, the changes of the late 14th century were nonetheless drastic. The fashions of the 1380s continued to develop the curved seam and taken the next step. New curved seams were used particularly on women’s dresses to allow the clothes to fit ever more neatly than before to give a fashionable outline. The previously curved sleeves were now set in to a degree that the sleeve back extended across the entire back to the shoulder blades and through the front of the body across the chest. However, the tightness of the torso as seen in the 1360s especially was no longer in vogue.
The most striking example of this is the doublet of Charles de Blois. Although he died in 1364, it is almost certain the doublet was made later, probably the 1370s or 80s. [18] The doublet demonstrates a finesse in both cut, fit, and use of cloth. The forearm is attached separately and is cut along the bias to allow extra stretch and movement in the fabric. In addition, the deep circular cuts for the front and back of the armhole also allow for stretch and the rounded cuts effectively make the edges of the sleeve a bias cut as well. [19]
In the late 14th century, the doublet continued to rise until it extended only just below the stomach. This shortness in the garment had finally spurred another change in fashion perhaps long overdue for modesty’s sake. That was the joining of the hose. At first only in the front and then finally all around, the hose were joined to conceal the braies. They were still pointed to the bottom of the doublet as was done in the earlier periods. However, do not assume that all doublets were worn short. It was a considerable amount of time before the long, hip length doublet went out of fashion. [20]
In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, in general, the ostentatious manner of dress continued apace and was flashy, showy, and dramatic. However, by about 1420 through 1440, dress became more sober and subdued. [21] Darker colors were more common, dagging was less used and often only seen on hoods. [22] While the previous era had embraced the contours of the body or the flamboyant freedom and excess of fabric as seen in the gown or houpplande, the middle of the 1420s saw more pronounced control and neater drape to clothing. It was no longer meant to emphasis the contour, nor was it voluminous and free. Instead, artwork seem to indicate that it carries more weight and has a heaviness about that coincides the more subdued color palette which work to suggest soberness. [23]
Regional fashion:
Until 1400, the style of clothing worn across Europe was largely the same. [24] While it may sound odd, it is likely true that fashion in 14th century Europe was similar enough that citizens of different countries and regions likely would not have been readily distinguishable at a glance. That is not to say that there were not regional differences in fashion, instead, it should be understood that fashionable trends in one region were largely adopted throughout the continent. Remember that at the start of the 1340s writers blamed other nations for the new fashion. However, that same fashion aesthetic seems to have been adopted across the entire continent and followed similar trends through the middle of the 14th century.[25]
One notable difference in fashion was that women in Italy and southern Europe wore their hair in looser braids than women of the north. Headdress indeed, too varied to discuss much here, was one instance of remarkable localization. Similarly, men’s hair and beards varied across Europe and throughout the period. While previous to the 1340s the beard was not in vogue in much of Europe, it became increasingly popular but took on regional and decade specific popularity. One style of beard particularly popular in the 1340s and 50s was the forked beard. German beards and men’s hair were typically longer than the rest of Europe.
The relative regional uniformity of fashion is remarkable because it demonstrates that Europe was truly a Continental culture center. It was not merely a region with distinct and varied regional and ethnic enclaves. It was, for all its troubles and intrigue, a place with great exchange of ideas, culture, and fashion. Nationalistic? Certainly, but not isolationist.
What is remarkable is that the new fashion appeared across Europe nearly simultaneously. [1] Indeed, this new fashion caused such uproar that chroniclers noted its adoption across Europe alongside seemingly grander happenings such as various battles of the 100 Years war. 1340 truly marked a new epoch in fashion which contemporaries viewed less as “mutation of the fashion which had previously been worn…, but something quite new.” [2] So great was the distress over the new fashion that various nations ascribed the new fashion to their neighbors. The Italians blamed the Spaniards, the English blamed the Flemish, and the French, while exorcised by the new fashion, apparently did not blame anyone else.
If then, there was a drastic change to something, what did the fashion change from? Prior to 1340, fashion was characterized by being cut loose and boxy. Sleeves were cut square and attached in a T-shape to the torso. The torso was worn wide across the chest and flared out more dramatically around the skirt. Garments were simply pulled over the head and controlled at the natural waist with a belt. Although progress toward neater cuts and closer tailoring had been made, it was the rule that clothing was not well tailored to the body. In the Twelfth century clothing was worn with loose long sleeves. In the Thirteenth century, armholes become tight in an attempt to gain better fit but the underlying problem of boxy t-shaped cuts still hampered better fits. [3]
In the Feudal Customs of Aragon from 1290-1310, the Vidale de Canellas offering his text to King James I of Argon shows the progression of better fitting sleeves. The wearers appear to have laced sleeves which would require lacing every day when the garment was put on. [4] Although this addressed the loose fitting sleeves at the forearm, artwork still depicts large folds and wrinkles of fabric in the underarm which suggest that the sleeves are still roughly t-shaped and loose fitting.
All of this changed in the 1340s. Sleeves were now “set in” the torso into rounded armholes high up the arm into the shoulder joint. The sleeves were worn close fitting and the torso of the tunic followed the contours of the body. Buttons adorned sleeves and the earlier method of manually sewing close fitting sleeves closed everyday was discarded. Men’s skirts, rather than flaring with ample folds of fabric, began to be much more form fitting, especially for the men. Because these garments were much closer fitting, they could no longer be pulled over the body and controlled with a belt. Instead, the garments required fastening through buttons and lacing. Even more scandalous was that this style of dress might necessitate assistance from another in donning and doffing the garments. [5]
Because these garments were shaped to fit an individual, the tailor was more involved. Further, rather than using a rectangular piece of fabric to make an arm or torso piece, the fabric was contoured which resulted in much more fabric waste from small cuttings of curved portions of the body. Indeed, the cotehardie’s tippets – the long hanging sleeve – furthered this “waste” of fabric by adorning a garment with completely ornamental sleeves. [6]
However, do not assume that these changes occurred in a vacuum. That they occurred over night, all at once, or universally. They did indeed coalesce in the 1340s, but changes – although stark – did come from somewhere and did reflect changes in society and evolutions of fashion.
In general, the fashion of the period involved the following garments:
Braies –
These are the undergarments of the time. Made of linen, they could be lined but were not typically. The reason one might line the braies would have to do with how short the doublet was and whether another outer garment like a cotehardies was worn over it. The braies become shorter and less baggy in this period as the hose rise and cover more of the upper thigh. By the mid-14th century they are essentially linen shorts cinched to the body with a drawstring. Although there remains great debate about whether women wore undergarments, the better part of the evidence appears that they did not. On this account, one notes that during the trial of Joan of Arc she was accused of wearing men’s clothes including hose and braies. It stands to reason she would not be thus charged if women typically wore braies. Still, this is an oft debated issue with valid points on both sides and there is evidence of early linen bras as well as menstruation garments.
Hose –
Hose in the mid-14th century began to change in cut and became longer and extended more fully to cover the back of the upper thigh to the buttock. The hose rose to meet up with the doublet and pointed to the doublet in fashionable styles by the 1340s. The hose would have sets of eyelets that allowed pointing around the top edge of the hose and could be pointed in the front, back, and sides of the hose. Sometimes there would be two courses on the front, side, and back each. It was not uncommon for men to untie certain points when engaged in vigorous activity because the hose would pull on the doublet and make bending and other movements difficult if the hose were attached all around the leg. However, when attached, it would give a very smooth effect. In addition, the hose attaching to the doublet would not only keep the hose up, but would help keep the doublet down. This was important as the doublet was often used as a foundational garment to give the wearer the stylish outline of the day.
Joined hose begin to be fashionable by the end of the 14th century but are certainly not universal.
For women, the hose did not change in form in the 14th century. They continued to be worn to the upper calf and kept in place with a garter of leather, ribbon, or cord.
Linen under shirt/smock –
This is a ubiquitous garment that would typically be changed every day if possible. It was easily laundered and was worn even with other foundation garments like a doublet. While the garment was probably worn looser in earlier periods, it would have to be somewhat tailored by the mid-1300s to fit underneath the more form fitting outer garments. This is particularly true of the sleeves which are often depicted as only reaching the forearm rather than the wrist. This would make sense as the sleeves of garments becomes considerably tighter in the mid-1300s.
For women, the smock serves the same basic function but is a knee to calf length garment which flares at the waist or the hips through the addition of gores in the garment to form a modest and comfortable skirt.
Cote/Tunic/Jupon/gippon -
The cote continued to be worn through the period but become closer fitting to match the styles of the day. The Jupon is worn as a cote – that is to say, it is worn as the base layer of clothing over the body linens. It would be long sleeved and have buttons down the sleeves. It was typically button down the front either all the way down or to the waist.
This could be worn with or without a doublet. It could also be worn with or without a cotehardie or surcote over it. It was a basic garment worn long sleeved. In this period, the sleeves usually buttoned up to the wrist and would feature 6 or more buttons along the sleeves. The skirts were knee length and had some freedom in the early 1340s. By the 1360s, the skirts were close fitting and reached to the mid-thigh. The torso became much closer fitting in the 1340s and followed the contours of the body rather naturally. By the 1350s the torso featured a padded belly with a curved back and by the 1360s, the fashion often featured a narrow waist with a padded rounded chest. Belts were often worn low around the hips with pouches and daggers worn between the legs.
For women the cote or dress did become closer fitting around the torso and the waist line dropped from the natural waist to the top of the hips or below. Women, too, wore belts low with pouches and sometimes even daggers in between the legs in what society viewed as a scandalously masculine fashion. The sleeves were buttoned and cut similarly to men’s clothing.
Doublet/paltok/jack (jacquerie)/corset –
This class of garment have their origins in martial or sporting wear and often worn in distinction to the cote but still worn with an over-tunic such as a coteharidie. The doublet is always lined, hence the name which is an allusion to its double layers. Typically it is laced in the front through eyelets. This is because it is being worn under other garments. Therefore, buttons on the front would alter the lines of the outer garment. The eyelets are generally placed 2-3 cm apart.
In the 1340s, the doublet appears to be worn to the crotch but by the 1360s it has risen to the hips. The doublet is also often worn as a foundational garment and may not have always been visible. When worn as a visible garment it will typically have buttons up the sleeves at least to the elbow. When worn foundationally, it probably lacked sleeves because it would be worn with a sleeved jupon or cotehardie or surcote. When worn as a foundational garment, it could be padded in the belly or the chest depending on the fashion of the time. In any case, by about 1340, hose were beginning to be worn higher and therefore would point to the doublet and the bottom would also contain courses of eyelets for points to attached hose. Anywhere from four to ten courses of eyelets were common. The more eyelets the finer the garment. By a “course” it is meant paired holes for a single tie to loop into with the untied ends hanging down and free to slip through the matching points on the hose. The doublet would typically lace up the front but could also be buttoned. In any case, the closures typically extended down the entire front of the garment. There are some references side lacing doublets, but these seem to be uncommon.
The Paltok came into popularity late in the 1360s or the 1370s. It was essentially a doublet with padding throughout and with quilted stitches. The pourpoint of Charles de Blois is the quintessential example of the padded paltok. It was martial in appearance but worn as the high fashion of day. Usually, this garment will be made of fine patterned or brocaded silk and lined with linen. Another term often used interchangeably with the paltok or pourpoint is the arming doublet.
The jacquerie was a French garment of humble rather than noble or genteel origins. It was popularized in France after the peasant revolt of 1358 and the defeat at Poiters. Called the jack in England, this was certainly a French import to England. The jack appears similar to the pourpoint in that its origins are martial in nature and that it was often quieted and padded for defense. However, the Jack was an outer garment worn over the cote. It was a very thick, many layered sleeveless garment that was intended to provided padding and protection to otherwise unarmored men. Among the lower classes, the jack was a garment of necessity and meant to be a simple, minimal padding. However, it was adopted and worn fashionably by the upper classes. The fact that the pourpoint and the jack are worn in fashionable circles highlights the martial focus of the century and the desire to appear ready for combat at all times.
For women, and indeed men, there are the beginnings of references to corsets as foundation garments. However, it is not likely that these were the ridged boned garments of later eras. Instead, it is my belief that the corset was cut like a sleeveless padded doublet. The garment could be worn as a foundation garment to give an appropriate silhouette to a outfit. Although the garment is often mentioned in wardrobes, there is a dearth in artwork that would reveal exactly what is meant by a corset.
Cotehardie/surcote –
The cotehardie is simply a description of a type of outer-cote. It literally means “bold coat” and therefore was typically an outer garment of finer cloth than the cote and was worn in the place of a surcote. The purpose of the outermost garment in this period of medieval fashion was to be expressive and feature bold cuts, colors, and stylings. It is not, then, a single definable style of garment but rather changes with time over the 14th and 15th centuries. [7] In the same way, the surcote merely connotes a garment that was worn over top the cote. The styles and cuts change over the 14th century but the authors tend to call the garment the same things. Their descriptions inform us of how it was worn – over a cote – but does not tell us what the cuts or styles were. Indeed, authors often use cotehardie, surcote, and supertunic interchangeably and regionally in a way that makes clear distinction difficult.
Still, when worn over a tunic, the cotehardie will typically be either sleeveless or have short sleeves. During the 1340s, tippits (pendants/streamers hanging from the short sleeves) were fashionable. In the 1340s it is most common for a cotehardie to button down the front across the chest. However, as the fashion developed, it became more common, but not universal, for the buttons to extend down the entire front of the garment. This was in part due to the tighter fits and higher hems which came in vogue. These changes made it impossible to pull even the skirts over the head and therefore the cotehardie needed to be button closed. In addition, the garment was frequently dagged at the hem and often done to match the hood in design. The cotehardie can be worn over a doublet or a tunic and might reach to the knees or, by the 1360s, might reach to only the mid-thigh. On the other hand, to the extent that such fine distinctions can be made, the surcote would typically be long tunic that reached to the mid-calf or the ground. It was not unfashionable to wear such a garment even as other skirts had rising hemlines. Instead, the longer garments tend to be signs of maturity, authority, and distinction in occupation.
Women adopted the basic stylings of the cotehardie, including the sleeve tippits, buttons, and close fit around the torso. However, because all women’s skirts reached at least to the ground, they did not adopt the higher hems. For the same reason, dagging at the bottom of the cotehardie skirt was not seen among women.
Gown/goune/houpplande –
The gown became quite popular in this period and was often made of wool or silk. A fine gown might use silk brocade and be richly decorated. In contrast to the other styles of the period which were close fitting and neat, the gown was lavish in its spaciousness and cut. The sleeves were often full length but might have holes in the mid-arm to allow the wearer to slide the arm out. This was typically a necessity to function as the sleeves were extremely wide and billowing. The length of the gown could be floor length, mid-thigh length or anywhere in between for men. For women the gown was universally floor length. The skirts of the gown were frounced and ruffled with extremely voluminous skirts and multiple ruffles to give the most billowy effect possible.
Headwear/Hood –
The hood reached its full potential in the 14th century and during the mid-14th century it became ever more outrageous, decorated, and subject to the whimsies of fleeting fashion. While the hood of the 13th century was largely a garment of utility and essential function, the hood of the 14th century was so much more. It was taken to the limits of fashionable wear. First, the liripipe, which in prior centuries began as a simple nub at the top of the hood, became longer and longer. By the 1340s the Lutrell Psalter shows that it extended from the top of the head in a long, thin strip of fabric to the shoulders. Other trendier fashions show the liripipe reaching to the small of the back, or sometimes even to the ground. The liripipes also become thinner as they grow longer. In addition, the bottom of the hood was frequently dagged in natural motifs or in repeating patterns. The liripipe, too, might be dagged or cut and then worn wrapped around the neck or tied around the cowl portion to the head. Another development was that the hood become tighter fitting around the neck and would often be buttoned rather than pulled over the head. The length of the hood cowl varied and could be wide and long – hanging over the shoulders and reaching the chest – or it could be relatively short and trim.
The classic bycocket, "Robin Hood" style hat became popular in the 14th century as well. It was made from wool felt which was shaped to have a tall crown with folded brim that comes to a point in the front. Although the "Robin Hood" style bycocket was very popular, other variations and shapes were common. The hat often had a lining of a contrasting color and was decorated with embroidery, feathers, and streamers of fabric. This style of hat was worn by both men and women.
Other styles of hats popular in the fourteenth century were turbans inspired by the Levant. Also popular was the fez style called a Turkish cap at the time. Men and women alike wore straw hats and wide brimmed felted wool hats. Other styles included tall, pointed hats that the wearer could roll up to wear as a close fitting cap or the wearer could leave the hat unrolled and let the extra portion to flop over across the head. Squared or rounded short caps are also part of the typical dress of both doctors and lawyers.
Women wore the most ostentatious hats of the period with steeple hats, horned shaped hats and other eye catching designs popular. Women also wore veils attached to many of their hats or to accompany the wimple head coverings. The veil was usually made of linen or silk and tended to be made of fine material. Veils are almost always white. They did not typically cover the face but instead frame or surround the face. Some veils are round with a hole left for the face and others were draped around the chin. The purpose of the veil in this period was to cover the hair, not the face.
While discussing women’s head covering, it is also appropriate to note that head covering and hairstyle would indicate the marital status of a medieval woman. In artwork, a young woman’s hair is typically left uncovered. If, for some reason it was covered it designated a physical or moral weakness [8] Women’s ears are hidden by either hair or head covering.
General observations:
In general, but not always, period authors often call an entire suit of clothes a roba or robe. This does not mean they are referring to a specific garment that we would now call the robe. Instead, the robe is comprised of the complete outfit of the wearer.
What makes understanding what is different about the new fashion especially confusing is that the people writing about them are not using specific terms, but often are writing using older, more general terms. Thus, an author will refer to what we now call a cotehardie by a more general term such as surcote or over-tunic or cote. In truth, that is what a cotehardie is, but the terms fail to capture the distinctives of a cotehardies as contrasted with a traditional surcote. Another difficulty is that the writers discussing the early changes in fashion are negatively and derisively describing the new garments. They are also typically writing about the garments in a way that is resistant to change and they do not, therefore, have sufficient motivation to differentiate the garments accurately at all times. I think of it like I would think of the difference between gaming consoles. You as a child knew all of the consoles and their minute distinctions while your mom used the general term – Nintendo – no matter what console it was. This is what seems to happen with these garments many times. Indeed, some of the garments do have considerable overlap in their use, function, and style. Further confusing things is that the braies and under linen shirt are usually a given, and thus not often commented upon. A final difficulty is that the authors are writing from different parts of Europe where the garments have different regional names. Italy, France, England, Germany, and other regions do not always call the same garment the same thing and this further complicates matters. Despite this, some authors do attempt to name the garments they are describing.
Fashion for men and women was similar prior to and throughout the 14th century save for three respects: (1) head covering and hairstyles; (2) the shape of the neckline; and (3) the length of the skirts. Although men’s fashion continues to be similar in basic form and function to women as the new fashion emerged, what is particularly new in the 1340s is that men’s fashion becomes shorter. Thus, this change is not as apparent for women’s dress in the mid-14th century. However, both men and women’s clothing becomes tighter fitting, starts to use buttons and lacing, becomes more ostentatious, and alters the neck line.
The biggest change for women in fourteenth century fashion is in headwear. While women’s garments did indeed change, the universal full length nature of women’s skirts left less opportunity for change. Instead, headwear presented the best opportunity for women to express the same social cues that changes in men’s fashion provided. Namely, headwear allowed women to be richly adorned, demonstrate gratuitous use of fabric and to call attention to oneself.
Women of high social status wore fantastic and intricate design. Some hats were intended to represent nature or animals with peacock or ostrich feathers being popular. [9] Another popular feature in women’s headwear were horn like protrusions. [10] Architecture also inspired women’s hats in the fourteenth century with gothic style steeple hats. [11] Women also wore hats with extremely long veils and with lavish decorations, embroidery, fur, beads, pearls, bells, feathers, and ribbons, ties and chin bands. [12] Typically, women’s hats did not match their primary dress.
In the early 1300s, the skirt of the tunic began to flare out at the naval and followed a rectangular outline of the upper body. While still rectangular, the outline had become much closer fitting than the previous fashions. As the fashion progressed, this rectangular outline began to more closely follow the contours of the body and absolutely required lacing or buttons to don and doff the clothing. However, the buttons and their arrangement were just as much a part of the fashion as the new style of cuts. In addition, the “waist” or the narrowest part of the garment was lowered below the natural waist toward the hips and ultimately the crotch.[13]
The cotehardie sleeves began to be shorter and only came half way down the upper arm and as the sleeve became shorter, the tippets became longer and narrower. Eventually, they would simply become streamers of fabric which could be removed, but in the early period, they were rounder and a clear extension of the sleeve.[14] Another quintessential development was the using of dagging which involving cutting the edges of the garments, and especially capes, hoods, and cowls, into fanciful patterns and shapes. Although this was not strictly a 14th century development, it was one that was fully embraced and realized in this period with some of the most elaborate examples from the 14th century. [15] Dagging was also frequently used on the bottom of the cotehardie or gown and often on the sleeves.
Sleeves in general were more elaborate and often had embroidered designs and trim. The embroidered designs might be heraldic motifs, floral or natural motifs, or repeating geometric patterns. [16] Cote sleeves frequently are trimmed in fur such as ermine for the wealthy while a lower status garment might only be trimmed with sheepskin.[17]
Late Fourteenth Century:
By 1380, the fashions of the mid-14th century were evolving yet again and advancing beyond the trends that started the new fashion. While less of a revolution than the new fashion of the 1340s, the changes of the late 14th century were nonetheless drastic. The fashions of the 1380s continued to develop the curved seam and taken the next step. New curved seams were used particularly on women’s dresses to allow the clothes to fit ever more neatly than before to give a fashionable outline. The previously curved sleeves were now set in to a degree that the sleeve back extended across the entire back to the shoulder blades and through the front of the body across the chest. However, the tightness of the torso as seen in the 1360s especially was no longer in vogue.
The most striking example of this is the doublet of Charles de Blois. Although he died in 1364, it is almost certain the doublet was made later, probably the 1370s or 80s. [18] The doublet demonstrates a finesse in both cut, fit, and use of cloth. The forearm is attached separately and is cut along the bias to allow extra stretch and movement in the fabric. In addition, the deep circular cuts for the front and back of the armhole also allow for stretch and the rounded cuts effectively make the edges of the sleeve a bias cut as well. [19]
In the late 14th century, the doublet continued to rise until it extended only just below the stomach. This shortness in the garment had finally spurred another change in fashion perhaps long overdue for modesty’s sake. That was the joining of the hose. At first only in the front and then finally all around, the hose were joined to conceal the braies. They were still pointed to the bottom of the doublet as was done in the earlier periods. However, do not assume that all doublets were worn short. It was a considerable amount of time before the long, hip length doublet went out of fashion. [20]
In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, in general, the ostentatious manner of dress continued apace and was flashy, showy, and dramatic. However, by about 1420 through 1440, dress became more sober and subdued. [21] Darker colors were more common, dagging was less used and often only seen on hoods. [22] While the previous era had embraced the contours of the body or the flamboyant freedom and excess of fabric as seen in the gown or houpplande, the middle of the 1420s saw more pronounced control and neater drape to clothing. It was no longer meant to emphasis the contour, nor was it voluminous and free. Instead, artwork seem to indicate that it carries more weight and has a heaviness about that coincides the more subdued color palette which work to suggest soberness. [23]
Regional fashion:
Until 1400, the style of clothing worn across Europe was largely the same. [24] While it may sound odd, it is likely true that fashion in 14th century Europe was similar enough that citizens of different countries and regions likely would not have been readily distinguishable at a glance. That is not to say that there were not regional differences in fashion, instead, it should be understood that fashionable trends in one region were largely adopted throughout the continent. Remember that at the start of the 1340s writers blamed other nations for the new fashion. However, that same fashion aesthetic seems to have been adopted across the entire continent and followed similar trends through the middle of the 14th century.[25]
One notable difference in fashion was that women in Italy and southern Europe wore their hair in looser braids than women of the north. Headdress indeed, too varied to discuss much here, was one instance of remarkable localization. Similarly, men’s hair and beards varied across Europe and throughout the period. While previous to the 1340s the beard was not in vogue in much of Europe, it became increasingly popular but took on regional and decade specific popularity. One style of beard particularly popular in the 1340s and 50s was the forked beard. German beards and men’s hair were typically longer than the rest of Europe.
The relative regional uniformity of fashion is remarkable because it demonstrates that Europe was truly a Continental culture center. It was not merely a region with distinct and varied regional and ethnic enclaves. It was, for all its troubles and intrigue, a place with great exchange of ideas, culture, and fashion. Nationalistic? Certainly, but not isolationist.
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[1]Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince: A Study of the years 1340-1365, Stella Mary Newton, Boydell Press and Rowman & Littlefield, Totowa New Jersey, 1980 at 2.
[2]Ibid.
[3]Fashion in the Middle Ages, Margaret Scott, Los Angeles, Getty Publications, 2011 at23.
[4]Ibid. at 28, JPGM, Ms. Ludwig XIV 6, fol. 1
[5] Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 3.
[6]Ibid.
[7]The History of Dress Series Late Gothic Europe, 1400-1500, Margaret Scott, Humanties Press, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1980
[8] Patricia Gathercole, The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, Lewiston New York: The Edward Mellen Press, 2008, 31.
[9] Patricia Gathercole, The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, Lewiston New York: The Edward Mellen Press, 2008, 10.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13]Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 4.
[14]Ibid. at 4-5.
[15]Ibid. at 5.
[16] The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, at 47.
[17] Ibid. at 48.
[18]Ibid. at 78.
[19]Ibid.
[20]Ibid. at 84
[21]Ibid. at 105
[22]Ibid.
[23]Ibid.
[24]Fashion in the Middle Ages at 35.
[25]Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 86.
[2]Ibid.
[3]Fashion in the Middle Ages, Margaret Scott, Los Angeles, Getty Publications, 2011 at23.
[4]Ibid. at 28, JPGM, Ms. Ludwig XIV 6, fol. 1
[5] Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 3.
[6]Ibid.
[7]The History of Dress Series Late Gothic Europe, 1400-1500, Margaret Scott, Humanties Press, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1980
[8] Patricia Gathercole, The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, Lewiston New York: The Edward Mellen Press, 2008, 31.
[9] Patricia Gathercole, The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, Lewiston New York: The Edward Mellen Press, 2008, 10.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13]Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 4.
[14]Ibid. at 4-5.
[15]Ibid. at 5.
[16] The Depiction of Clothing in French Medieval Manuscripts, at 47.
[17] Ibid. at 48.
[18]Ibid. at 78.
[19]Ibid.
[20]Ibid. at 84
[21]Ibid. at 105
[22]Ibid.
[23]Ibid.
[24]Fashion in the Middle Ages at 35.
[25]Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince at 86.